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Incompressible elasticity

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This example is also available as a Jupyter notebook: incompressible_elasticity.ipynb.

Introduction

Mixed elements can be used to overcome locking when the material becomes incompressible. However, for an element to be stable, it needs to fulfill the LBB condition. In this example we will consider two different element formulations

  • linear displacement with linear pressure approximation (does not fulfill LBB)
  • quadratic displacement with linear pressure approximation (does fulfill LBB)

The quadratic/linear element is also known as the Taylor-Hood element. We will consider Cook's Membrane with an applied traction on the right hand side.

Commented program

What follows is a program spliced with comments. The full program, without comments, can be found in the next section.

using Ferrite, Tensors
using BlockArrays, SparseArrays, LinearAlgebra

First we generate a simple grid, specifying the 4 corners of Cooks membrane.

function create_cook_grid(nx, ny)
    corners = [
        Vec{2}((0.0, 0.0)),
        Vec{2}((48.0, 44.0)),
        Vec{2}((48.0, 60.0)),
        Vec{2}((0.0, 44.0)),
    ]
    grid = generate_grid(Triangle, (nx, ny), corners)
    # facesets for boundary conditions
    addfacetset!(grid, "clamped", x -> norm(x[1]) ≈ 0.0)
    addfacetset!(grid, "traction", x -> norm(x[1]) ≈ 48.0)
    return grid
end;

Next we define a function to set up our cell- and FacetValues.

function create_values(interpolation_u, interpolation_p)
    # quadrature rules
    qr = QuadratureRule{RefTriangle}(3)
    facet_qr = FacetQuadratureRule{RefTriangle}(3)

    # cell and FacetValues for u
    cellvalues_u = CellValues(qr, interpolation_u)
    facetvalues_u = FacetValues(facet_qr, interpolation_u)

    # cellvalues for p
    cellvalues_p = CellValues(qr, interpolation_p)

    return cellvalues_u, cellvalues_p, facetvalues_u
end;

We create a DofHandler, with two fields, :u and :p, with possibly different interpolations

function create_dofhandler(grid, ipu, ipp)
    dh = DofHandler(grid)
    add!(dh, :u, ipu) # displacement
    add!(dh, :p, ipp) # pressure
    close!(dh)
    return dh
end;

We also need to add Dirichlet boundary conditions on the "clamped" facetset. We specify a homogeneous Dirichlet bc on the displacement field, :u.

function create_bc(dh)
    dbc = ConstraintHandler(dh)
    add!(dbc, Dirichlet(:u, getfacetset(dh.grid, "clamped"), x -> zero(x), [1, 2]))
    close!(dbc)
    return dbc
end;

The material is linear elastic, which is here specified by the shear and bulk moduli

struct LinearElasticity{T}
    G::T
    K::T
end

Now to the assembling of the stiffness matrix. This mixed formulation leads to a blocked element matrix. Since Ferrite does not force us to use any particular matrix type we will use a BlockedArray from BlockArrays.jl.

function doassemble(
        cellvalues_u::CellValues,
        cellvalues_p::CellValues,
        facetvalues_u::FacetValues,
        K::SparseMatrixCSC, grid::Grid, dh::DofHandler, mp::LinearElasticity
    )
    f = zeros(ndofs(dh))
    assembler = start_assemble(K, f)
    nu = getnbasefunctions(cellvalues_u)
    np = getnbasefunctions(cellvalues_p)

    fe = BlockedArray(zeros(nu + np), [nu, np]) # local force vector
    ke = BlockedArray(zeros(nu + np, nu + np), [nu, np], [nu, np]) # local stiffness matrix

    # traction vector
    t = Vec{2}((0.0, 1 / 16))
    # cache ɛdev outside the element routine to avoid some unnecessary allocations
    ɛdev = [zero(SymmetricTensor{2, 2}) for i in 1:getnbasefunctions(cellvalues_u)]

    for cell in CellIterator(dh)
        fill!(ke, 0)
        fill!(fe, 0)
        assemble_up!(ke, fe, cell, cellvalues_u, cellvalues_p, facetvalues_u, grid, mp, ɛdev, t)
        assemble!(assembler, celldofs(cell), ke, fe)
    end

    return K, f
end;

The element routine integrates the local stiffness and force vector for all elements. Since the problem results in a symmetric matrix we choose to only assemble the lower part, and then symmetrize it after the loop over the quadrature points.

function assemble_up!(Ke, fe, cell, cellvalues_u, cellvalues_p, facetvalues_u, grid, mp, ɛdev, t)

    n_basefuncs_u = getnbasefunctions(cellvalues_u)
    n_basefuncs_p = getnbasefunctions(cellvalues_p)
    u▄, p▄ = 1, 2
    reinit!(cellvalues_u, cell)
    reinit!(cellvalues_p, cell)

    # We only assemble lower half triangle of the stiffness matrix and then symmetrize it.
    for q_point in 1:getnquadpoints(cellvalues_u)
        for i in 1:n_basefuncs_u
            ɛdev[i] = dev(symmetric(shape_gradient(cellvalues_u, q_point, i)))
        end
        dΩ = getdetJdV(cellvalues_u, q_point)
        for i in 1:n_basefuncs_u
            divδu = shape_divergence(cellvalues_u, q_point, i)
            δu = shape_value(cellvalues_u, q_point, i)
            for j in 1:i
                Ke[BlockIndex((u▄, u▄), (i, j))] += 2 * mp.G * ɛdev[i] ⊡ ɛdev[j] * dΩ
            end
        end

        for i in 1:n_basefuncs_p
            δp = shape_value(cellvalues_p, q_point, i)
            for j in 1:n_basefuncs_u
                divδu = shape_divergence(cellvalues_u, q_point, j)
                Ke[BlockIndex((p▄, u▄), (i, j))] += -δp * divδu * dΩ
            end
            for j in 1:i
                p = shape_value(cellvalues_p, q_point, j)
                Ke[BlockIndex((p▄, p▄), (i, j))] += - 1 / mp.K * δp * p * dΩ
            end

        end
    end

    symmetrize_lower!(Ke)

    # We integrate the Neumann boundary using the FacetValues.
    # We loop over all the facets in the cell, then check if the facet
    # is in our `"traction"` facetset.
    for facet in 1:nfacets(cell)
        if (cellid(cell), facet) ∈ getfacetset(grid, "traction")
            reinit!(facetvalues_u, cell, facet)
            for q_point in 1:getnquadpoints(facetvalues_u)
                dΓ = getdetJdV(facetvalues_u, q_point)
                for i in 1:n_basefuncs_u
                    δu = shape_value(facetvalues_u, q_point, i)
                    fe[i] += (δu ⋅ t) * dΓ
                end
            end
        end
    end
    return
end

function symmetrize_lower!(Ke)
    for i in 1:size(Ke, 1)
        for j in (i + 1):size(Ke, 1)
            Ke[i, j] = Ke[j, i]
        end
    end
    return
end;

To evaluate the stresses after solving the problem we once again loop over the cells in the grid. Stresses are evaluated in the quadrature points, however, for export/visualization you typically want values in the nodes of the mesh, or as single data points per cell. For the former you can project the quadrature point data to a finite element space (see the example with the L2Projector in Post processing and visualization). In this example we choose to compute the mean value of the stress within each cell, and thus end up with one data point per cell. The mean value is computed as

\[\bar{\boldsymbol{\sigma}}_i = \frac{1}{ |\Omega_i|} \int_{\Omega_i} \boldsymbol{\sigma}\, \mathrm{d}\Omega, \quad |\Omega_i| = \int_{\Omega_i} 1\, \mathrm{d}\Omega\]

where $\Omega_i$ is the domain occupied by cell number $i$, and $|\Omega_i|$ the volume (area) of the cell. The integrals are evaluated using numerical quadrature with the help of cellvalues for u and p, just like in the assembly procedure.

Note that even though all strain components in the out-of-plane direction are zero (plane strain) the stress components are not. Specifically, $\sigma_{33}$ will be non-zero in this formulation. Therefore we expand the strain to a 3D tensor, and then compute the (3D) stress tensor.

function compute_stresses(
        cellvalues_u::CellValues, cellvalues_p::CellValues,
        dh::DofHandler, mp::LinearElasticity, a::Vector
    )
    ae = zeros(ndofs_per_cell(dh)) # local solution vector
    u_range = dof_range(dh, :u)    # local range of dofs corresponding to u
    p_range = dof_range(dh, :p)    # local range of dofs corresponding to p
    # Allocate storage for the stresses
    σ = zeros(SymmetricTensor{2, 3}, getncells(dh.grid))
    # Loop over the cells and compute the cell-average stress
    for cc in CellIterator(dh)
        # Update cellvalues
        reinit!(cellvalues_u, cc)
        reinit!(cellvalues_p, cc)
        # Extract the cell local part of the solution
        for (i, I) in pairs(celldofs(cc))
            ae[i] = a[I]
        end
        # Loop over the quadrature points
        σΩi = zero(SymmetricTensor{2, 3}) # stress integrated over the cell
        Ωi = 0.0                          # cell volume (area)
        for qp in 1:getnquadpoints(cellvalues_u)
            dΩ = getdetJdV(cellvalues_u, qp)
            # Evaluate the strain and the pressure
            ε = function_symmetric_gradient(cellvalues_u, qp, ae, u_range)
            p = function_value(cellvalues_p, qp, ae, p_range)
            # Expand strain to 3D
            ε3D = SymmetricTensor{2, 3}((i, j) -> i < 3 && j < 3 ? ε[i, j] : 0.0)
            # Compute the stress in this quadrature point
            σqp = 2 * mp.G * dev(ε3D) - one(ε3D) * p
            σΩi += σqp * dΩ
            Ωi += dΩ
        end
        # Store the value
        σ[cellid(cc)] = σΩi / Ωi
    end
    return σ
end;

Now we have constructed all the necessary components, we just need a function to put it all together.

function solve(ν, interpolation_u, interpolation_p)
    # material
    Emod = 1.0
    Gmod = Emod / 2(1 + ν)
    Kmod = Emod * ν / ((1 + ν) * (1 - 2ν))
    mp = LinearElasticity(Gmod, Kmod)

    # Grid, dofhandler, boundary condition
    n = 50
    grid = create_cook_grid(n, n)
    dh = create_dofhandler(grid, interpolation_u, interpolation_p)
    dbc = create_bc(dh)

    # CellValues
    cellvalues_u, cellvalues_p, facetvalues_u = create_values(interpolation_u, interpolation_p)

    # Assembly and solve
    K = allocate_matrix(dh)
    K, f = doassemble(cellvalues_u, cellvalues_p, facetvalues_u, K, grid, dh, mp)
    apply!(K, f, dbc)
    u = K \ f

    # Compute the stress
    σ = compute_stresses(cellvalues_u, cellvalues_p, dh, mp, u)
    σvM = map(x -> √(3 / 2 * dev(x) ⊡ dev(x)), σ) # von Mise effective stress

    # Export the solution and the stress
    filename = "cook_" *
        (interpolation_u == Lagrange{RefTriangle, 1}()^2 ? "linear" : "quadratic") *
        "_linear"

    VTKGridFile(filename, grid) do vtk
        write_solution(vtk, dh, u)
        for i in 1:3, j in 1:3
            σij = [x[i, j] for x in σ]
            write_cell_data(vtk, σij, "sigma_$(i)$(j)")
        end
        write_cell_data(vtk, σvM, "sigma von Mises")
    end
    return u
end

We now define the interpolation for displacement and pressure. We use (scalar) Lagrange interpolation as a basis for both, and for the displacement, which is a vector, we vectorize it to 2 dimensions such that we obtain vector shape functions (and 2nd order tensors for the gradients).

linear_p = Lagrange{RefTriangle, 1}()
linear_u = Lagrange{RefTriangle, 1}()^2
quadratic_u = Lagrange{RefTriangle, 2}()^2

All that is left is to solve the problem. We choose a value of Poissons ratio that results in incompressibility ($ν = 0.5$) and thus expect the linear/linear approximation to return garbage, and the quadratic/linear approximation to be stable.

u1 = solve(0.5, linear_u, linear_p);
u2 = solve(0.5, quadratic_u, linear_p);

Plain program

Here follows a version of the program without any comments. The file is also available here: incompressible_elasticity.jl.

using Ferrite, Tensors
using BlockArrays, SparseArrays, LinearAlgebra

function create_cook_grid(nx, ny)
    corners = [
        Vec{2}((0.0, 0.0)),
        Vec{2}((48.0, 44.0)),
        Vec{2}((48.0, 60.0)),
        Vec{2}((0.0, 44.0)),
    ]
    grid = generate_grid(Triangle, (nx, ny), corners)
    # facesets for boundary conditions
    addfacetset!(grid, "clamped", x -> norm(x[1]) ≈ 0.0)
    addfacetset!(grid, "traction", x -> norm(x[1]) ≈ 48.0)
    return grid
end;

function create_values(interpolation_u, interpolation_p)
    # quadrature rules
    qr = QuadratureRule{RefTriangle}(3)
    facet_qr = FacetQuadratureRule{RefTriangle}(3)

    # cell and FacetValues for u
    cellvalues_u = CellValues(qr, interpolation_u)
    facetvalues_u = FacetValues(facet_qr, interpolation_u)

    # cellvalues for p
    cellvalues_p = CellValues(qr, interpolation_p)

    return cellvalues_u, cellvalues_p, facetvalues_u
end;

function create_dofhandler(grid, ipu, ipp)
    dh = DofHandler(grid)
    add!(dh, :u, ipu) # displacement
    add!(dh, :p, ipp) # pressure
    close!(dh)
    return dh
end;

function create_bc(dh)
    dbc = ConstraintHandler(dh)
    add!(dbc, Dirichlet(:u, getfacetset(dh.grid, "clamped"), x -> zero(x), [1, 2]))
    close!(dbc)
    return dbc
end;

struct LinearElasticity{T}
    G::T
    K::T
end

function doassemble(
        cellvalues_u::CellValues,
        cellvalues_p::CellValues,
        facetvalues_u::FacetValues,
        K::SparseMatrixCSC, grid::Grid, dh::DofHandler, mp::LinearElasticity
    )
    f = zeros(ndofs(dh))
    assembler = start_assemble(K, f)
    nu = getnbasefunctions(cellvalues_u)
    np = getnbasefunctions(cellvalues_p)

    fe = BlockedArray(zeros(nu + np), [nu, np]) # local force vector
    ke = BlockedArray(zeros(nu + np, nu + np), [nu, np], [nu, np]) # local stiffness matrix

    # traction vector
    t = Vec{2}((0.0, 1 / 16))
    # cache ɛdev outside the element routine to avoid some unnecessary allocations
    ɛdev = [zero(SymmetricTensor{2, 2}) for i in 1:getnbasefunctions(cellvalues_u)]

    for cell in CellIterator(dh)
        fill!(ke, 0)
        fill!(fe, 0)
        assemble_up!(ke, fe, cell, cellvalues_u, cellvalues_p, facetvalues_u, grid, mp, ɛdev, t)
        assemble!(assembler, celldofs(cell), ke, fe)
    end

    return K, f
end;

function assemble_up!(Ke, fe, cell, cellvalues_u, cellvalues_p, facetvalues_u, grid, mp, ɛdev, t)

    n_basefuncs_u = getnbasefunctions(cellvalues_u)
    n_basefuncs_p = getnbasefunctions(cellvalues_p)
    u▄, p▄ = 1, 2
    reinit!(cellvalues_u, cell)
    reinit!(cellvalues_p, cell)

    # We only assemble lower half triangle of the stiffness matrix and then symmetrize it.
    for q_point in 1:getnquadpoints(cellvalues_u)
        for i in 1:n_basefuncs_u
            ɛdev[i] = dev(symmetric(shape_gradient(cellvalues_u, q_point, i)))
        end
        dΩ = getdetJdV(cellvalues_u, q_point)
        for i in 1:n_basefuncs_u
            divδu = shape_divergence(cellvalues_u, q_point, i)
            δu = shape_value(cellvalues_u, q_point, i)
            for j in 1:i
                Ke[BlockIndex((u▄, u▄), (i, j))] += 2 * mp.G * ɛdev[i] ⊡ ɛdev[j] * dΩ
            end
        end

        for i in 1:n_basefuncs_p
            δp = shape_value(cellvalues_p, q_point, i)
            for j in 1:n_basefuncs_u
                divδu = shape_divergence(cellvalues_u, q_point, j)
                Ke[BlockIndex((p▄, u▄), (i, j))] += -δp * divδu * dΩ
            end
            for j in 1:i
                p = shape_value(cellvalues_p, q_point, j)
                Ke[BlockIndex((p▄, p▄), (i, j))] += - 1 / mp.K * δp * p * dΩ
            end

        end
    end

    symmetrize_lower!(Ke)

    # We integrate the Neumann boundary using the FacetValues.
    # We loop over all the facets in the cell, then check if the facet
    # is in our `"traction"` facetset.
    for facet in 1:nfacets(cell)
        if (cellid(cell), facet) ∈ getfacetset(grid, "traction")
            reinit!(facetvalues_u, cell, facet)
            for q_point in 1:getnquadpoints(facetvalues_u)
                dΓ = getdetJdV(facetvalues_u, q_point)
                for i in 1:n_basefuncs_u
                    δu = shape_value(facetvalues_u, q_point, i)
                    fe[i] += (δu ⋅ t) * dΓ
                end
            end
        end
    end
    return
end

function symmetrize_lower!(Ke)
    for i in 1:size(Ke, 1)
        for j in (i + 1):size(Ke, 1)
            Ke[i, j] = Ke[j, i]
        end
    end
    return
end;

function compute_stresses(
        cellvalues_u::CellValues, cellvalues_p::CellValues,
        dh::DofHandler, mp::LinearElasticity, a::Vector
    )
    ae = zeros(ndofs_per_cell(dh)) # local solution vector
    u_range = dof_range(dh, :u)    # local range of dofs corresponding to u
    p_range = dof_range(dh, :p)    # local range of dofs corresponding to p
    # Allocate storage for the stresses
    σ = zeros(SymmetricTensor{2, 3}, getncells(dh.grid))
    # Loop over the cells and compute the cell-average stress
    for cc in CellIterator(dh)
        # Update cellvalues
        reinit!(cellvalues_u, cc)
        reinit!(cellvalues_p, cc)
        # Extract the cell local part of the solution
        for (i, I) in pairs(celldofs(cc))
            ae[i] = a[I]
        end
        # Loop over the quadrature points
        σΩi = zero(SymmetricTensor{2, 3}) # stress integrated over the cell
        Ωi = 0.0                          # cell volume (area)
        for qp in 1:getnquadpoints(cellvalues_u)
            dΩ = getdetJdV(cellvalues_u, qp)
            # Evaluate the strain and the pressure
            ε = function_symmetric_gradient(cellvalues_u, qp, ae, u_range)
            p = function_value(cellvalues_p, qp, ae, p_range)
            # Expand strain to 3D
            ε3D = SymmetricTensor{2, 3}((i, j) -> i < 3 && j < 3 ? ε[i, j] : 0.0)
            # Compute the stress in this quadrature point
            σqp = 2 * mp.G * dev(ε3D) - one(ε3D) * p
            σΩi += σqp * dΩ
            Ωi += dΩ
        end
        # Store the value
        σ[cellid(cc)] = σΩi / Ωi
    end
    return σ
end;

function solve(ν, interpolation_u, interpolation_p)
    # material
    Emod = 1.0
    Gmod = Emod / 2(1 + ν)
    Kmod = Emod * ν / ((1 + ν) * (1 - 2ν))
    mp = LinearElasticity(Gmod, Kmod)

    # Grid, dofhandler, boundary condition
    n = 50
    grid = create_cook_grid(n, n)
    dh = create_dofhandler(grid, interpolation_u, interpolation_p)
    dbc = create_bc(dh)

    # CellValues
    cellvalues_u, cellvalues_p, facetvalues_u = create_values(interpolation_u, interpolation_p)

    # Assembly and solve
    K = allocate_matrix(dh)
    K, f = doassemble(cellvalues_u, cellvalues_p, facetvalues_u, K, grid, dh, mp)
    apply!(K, f, dbc)
    u = K \ f

    # Compute the stress
    σ = compute_stresses(cellvalues_u, cellvalues_p, dh, mp, u)
    σvM = map(x -> √(3 / 2 * dev(x) ⊡ dev(x)), σ) # von Mise effective stress

    # Export the solution and the stress
    filename = "cook_" *
        (interpolation_u == Lagrange{RefTriangle, 1}()^2 ? "linear" : "quadratic") *
        "_linear"

    VTKGridFile(filename, grid) do vtk
        write_solution(vtk, dh, u)
        for i in 1:3, j in 1:3
            σij = [x[i, j] for x in σ]
            write_cell_data(vtk, σij, "sigma_$(i)$(j)")
        end
        write_cell_data(vtk, σvM, "sigma von Mises")
    end
    return u
end

linear_p = Lagrange{RefTriangle, 1}()
linear_u = Lagrange{RefTriangle, 1}()^2
quadratic_u = Lagrange{RefTriangle, 2}()^2

u1 = solve(0.5, linear_u, linear_p);
u2 = solve(0.5, quadratic_u, linear_p);

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